History Apache

1 history

1.1 entry southwest
1.2 conflict mexico , united states
1.3 forced removal
1.4 defeat

history
entry southwest

the apache , navajo tribal groups of north american southwest speak related languages of athabaskan language family. other athabaskan-speaking people in north america continue reside in alaska, western canada, , northwest pacific coast. anthropological evidence suggests apache , navajo peoples lived in these same northern locales before migrating southwest sometime between ad 1200 , 1500.

the apaches’ nomadic way of life complicates accurate dating, because constructed less substantial dwellings other southwestern groups. since 21st century, substantial progress has been made in dating , distinguishing dwellings , other forms of material culture. left behind more austere set of tools , material goods other southwestern cultures.

the athabaskan-speaking group moved areas concurrently occupied or abandoned other cultures. other athabaskan speakers, perhaps including southern athabaskan, adapted many of neighbors technology , practices in own cultures. sites southern athabaskans may have lived difficult locate , more difficult firmly identify culturally southern athabaskan. recent advances have been made in regard in far southern portion of american southwest.

there several hypotheses concerning apache migrations. 1 posits moved southwest great plains. in 16th century, these mobile groups lived in tents, hunted bison , other game, , used dogs pull travois loaded possessions. substantial numbers of people , wide range recorded spanish in 16th century.

the coronado expedition, 1540–1542

in april 1541, while traveling on plains east of pueblo region, francisco coronado referred people dog nomads. wrote:

after seventeen days of travel, came upon rancheria of indians follow these cattle (bison). these natives called querechos. not cultivate land, eat raw meat , drink blood of cattle kill. dress in skins of cattle, people in land clothe themselves, , have well-constructed tents, made tanned , greased cowhides, in live , take along follow cattle. have dogs load carry tents, poles, , belongings.

the spanish described plains dogs white, black spots, , not larger water spaniels. plains dogs smaller used hauling loads modern inuit , northern first nations people in canada. recent experiments show these dogs may have pulled loads 50 lb (20 kg) on long trips, @ rates high 2 or 3 miles per hour (3 5 km/h). plains migration theory associates apache peoples dismal river culture, archaeological culture known ceramics , house remains, dated 1675–1725, has been excavated in nebraska, eastern colorado, , western kansas.

although first documentary sources mention apache, , historians have suggested passages indicate 16th-century entry north, archaeological data indicate present on plains long before first reported contact.

a competing theory posits migration south, through rocky mountains, reaching american southwest 14th century or perhaps earlier. archaeological material culture assemblage identified in mountainous zone ancestral apache has been referred cerro rojo complex . theory not preclude arrival via plains route well, perhaps concurrently, date earliest evidence has been found in mountainous southwest. plains apache have significant southern plains cultural influence.

when spanish arrived in area, trade between long established pueblo peoples , southern athabaskan established. reported pueblo exchanged maize , woven cotton goods bison meat, , hides , materials stone tools. coronado observed plains people wintering near pueblo in established camps. later spanish sovereignty on area disrupted trade between pueblo , diverging apache , navajo groups. apache acquired horses, improving mobility quick raids on settlements. in addition, pueblo forced work spanish mission lands , care mission flocks; had fewer surplus goods trade neighbors.

in 1540, coronado reported modern western apache area uninhabited, although scholars have argued did not see american indians. other spanish explorers first mention querechos living west of rio grande in 1580s. historians, implies apaches moved current southwestern homelands in late 16th , 17th centuries. other historians note coronado reported pueblo women , children had been evacuated time party attacked dwellings, , saw dwellings had been abandoned moved rio grande. might indicate semi-nomadic southern athabaskan had advance warning hostile approach , evaded encounter spanish. archaeologists finding ample evidence of proto-apache presence in southwestern mountain zone in 15th century , perhaps earlier. apache presence on both plains , in mountainous southwest indicate people took multiple migration routes.

conflict mexico , united states

in general, arrived spanish colonists, settled in villages, , apache bands developed pattern of interaction on few centuries. both raided , traded each other. records of period seem indicate relationships depended upon specific villages , specific bands involved each other. example, 1 band might friends 1 village , raid another. when war happened between two, spanish send troops, after battle both sides sign treaty, , both sides go home.

the traditional , treacherous relationships continued between villages , bands independence of mexico in 1821. 1835 mexico had placed bounty on apache scalps (see scalping) villages still trading bands. when juan josé compà, leader of copper mines mimbreño apaches, killed bounty money in 1837, mangas coloradas (red sleeves) or dasoda-hae (he sits there) became principal chief , war leader; in same 1837 soldado fiero (aka fuerte), leader of warm springs mimbreño apaches, killed mexican soldiers near janos, , son cuchillo negro (black knife) became principal chief , war leader. (being mangas coloradas first chief , cuchillo negro second chief of whole tchihende or mimbreño people) conducted series of retaliatory raids against mexicans. 1856, authorities in horse-rich durango claim indian raids (mostly comanche , apache) in state had taken 6,000 lives, abducted 748 people, , forced abandonment of 358 settlements on previous 20 years.

geronimo

when united states went war against mexico in 1846, many apache bands promised u.s. soldiers safe passage through lands. when u.s. claimed former territories of mexico in 1846, mangas coloradas signed peace treaty nation, respecting them conquerors of mexicans land. uneasy peace between apache , new citizens of united states held until 1850s. influx of gold miners santa rita mountains led conflict apache. period called apache wars.

united states concept of reservation had not been used spanish, mexicans or other apache neighbors before. reservations badly managed, , bands had no kinship relationships forced live together. no fences existed keep people in or out. not uncommon band given permission leave short period of time. other times band leave without permission, raid, return homeland forage, or away. military had forts nearby. job keeping various bands on reservations finding , returning left. reservation policies of united states produced conflict , war various apache bands left reservations quarter century.

warfare between apache peoples , euro-americans has led stereotypical focus on aspects of apache cultures. these have been distorted through misunderstanding of cultures, noted anthropologist keith basso:

of hundreds of peoples lived , flourished in native north america, few have been consistently misrepresented apacheans of arizona , new mexico. glorified novelists, sensationalized historians, , distorted beyond credulity commercial film makers, popular image of apache — brutish, terrifying semi-human bent upon wanton death , destruction — entirely product of irresponsible caricature , exaggeration. indeed, there can little doubt apache has been transformed native american american legend, fanciful , fallacious creation of non-indian citizenry inability recognize massive treachery of ethnic , cultural stereotypes has been matched willingness sustain , inflate them.

forced removal

in 1875, united states military forced removal of estimated 1500 yavapai , dilzhe’e apache (better known tonto apache) rio verde indian reserve , several thousand acres of treaty lands promised them united states government. @ orders of indian commissioner, l.e. dudley, u.s. army troops made people, young , old, walk through winter-flooded rivers, mountain passes , narrow canyon trails indian agency @ san carlos, 180 miles (290 km) away. trek resulted in loss of several hundred lives. people held there in internment 25 years while white settlers took on land. few hundred ever returned lands.

defeat

most united states histories of era report final defeat of apache band took place when 5,000 troops forced geronimo s group of 30 50 men, women , children surrender on september 4, 1886, @ skeleton canyon, arizona. army sent band , chiricahua scouts had tracked them military confinement in florida @ fort pickens and, subsequently, ft. sill, oklahoma.

many books written on stories of hunting , trapping during late 19th century. many of these stories involve apache raids , failure of agreements americans , mexicans. in post-war era, government arranged apache children taken families adoption white americans in assimilation programs. these similar in nature involving stolen generations of australia.